Case Studies

Addae, C. (2005). The expansion of the concept of Fair Trade to increase the economic welfare of rural farmers in Ghana: A case study of the Kuapa Kokoo Farmers' Cooperative. (M.A., University of Massachusetts Lowell). , 106.

While the guaranteed and higher Fair Trade (FT) prices plus premiums that are paid to the primary producers of the Global South are by all indications the best deal these often poor rural producers could ever hope for, in their aspirations for better life, the world market share of FT and its affiliated producer-organizations in the South is limited. Using the fair-trade-based Kuapa Kokoo Farmers' Cooperative (KKFC) in Ghana as the basis for this study, the research explores other means in which FT in general, and the cocoa-farmer's cooperative in particular, could additionally increase their world market shares. This would enable KKFC to positively influence the well-being of many more cocoa producers in Ghana, as the organization is currently only able to cater to a small percentage of cocoa producers. The study discusses pertinent issues in Ghana's cocoa production and FT, and makes recommendations to achieve the further expansion capabilities of KKFC and FT. (Addae, 2005)

Arce, A. (2009). Living in times of solidarity: Fair trade and the fractured life worlds of guatemalan coffee farmers. Journal of International Development, 21(7), 1031.

This paper examines the social effects of fair trade transactions emerging from policies to expand the market around the globe. Focusing on the case of coffee farmers in Guatemala, it examines tensions that are created in local organisational networks linked to production, processing and certification of fair trade organic coffee and how these tensions fracture and fragment the life worlds of these coffee farmers. While the fair trade market has provided positive opportunities for rural producers the research finds that network separation and market exclusion are also social expressions of involvement in fair trade. It is argued that fair trade policies need to reflect a more nuanced understanding of household and community level consequences of production for the fair trade market. (Arce, 2009)

Becchetti, L., & Costantino, M. (2008). The effects of fair trade on affiliated producers: An impact analysis on kenyan farmers. World Development, 36(5), 823-842.

We analyse the impact of fair trade (FT) affiliation on monetary and non-monetary measures of well-being in a sample of Kenyan farmers. Our descriptive and econometric findings document significant differences in terms of varieties of products sold, price satisfaction, monthly household food consumption, (self declared) satisfaction with living conditions, dietary quality, and child mortality for affiliates of fair trade and Meru Herbs (first-level local producer organization) with respect to a control sample. Methodological problems such as FT’s vis à vis Meru Herbs’ relative contribution, control sample bias, FT and Meru Herbs selection biases are discussed and addressed showing that ex ante (self) selection of Meru Herbs members contributes to explaining some but not all of our results. (abstract from the authors)

Biggs, S., & Lewis, D. (2009). Fair trade and organizational innovation in nepal: Lessons from 25 years of growth of the association of craft producers (ACP). The European Journal of Development Research, 21(3), 377.

The history of the Association of Craft Producers, a fair trade organization in Nepal, illustrates an important point often ignored during research on development organizations: that each will evolve along unique lines, not easily fitting into standard categories of 'for-profit' business, 'non-profit' organization, 'charity' or 'development non-governmental organization' used in the literature. Instead, organizational structures, ideas and cultures are constructed by practice as highly contingent processes and based on diverse logics. We argue against the managerialist idea that such organizations can be viewed simply as variants or 'hybrids', and we challenge conventional emphases on organizations as unitary structures or systems within an environment in favour of a more interactive, dynamic perspective in which actors in organizations are seen to change the environments in which they are located. Such an approach also provides support to ideas about 'positive deviance' as a method of learning that can potentially avoid formulaic thinking.

Cray, C. (2000). A sweeter cup. Multinational Monitor, 21(5), 4.

Reports that Starbucks Corp. has announced that it has signed a contract with TransFair USA to sell fair trade certified coffee. Role of TransFair USA in the marketing of fair trade coffee; World market price of fair trade coffee; Comments from Dave Olsen, senior vice president of Starbucks.

Dato-on, M. C., Joyce, M., & Manolis, C. (2006). Creating effective customer relationships in not-for-profit retailing: The ten thousand villages example. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 11(4), 319.

This paper examines Ten Thousand Villages (a not-for-profit organization with retail operations in US and Canada that pays Third World artisans fair market value for their works) in terms of its retailing and customer relationship management (CRM) strategies. The authors present an analysis of one Ten Thousand Villages retail store to assess if and how CRM might be successfully implemented. The analysis considers the use of a volunteer retail sales force and how volunteers might successfully interface with customers.

Dolan, C. S. (2007). Market affections: Moral encounters with kenyan fairtrade flowers. Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology, 72(2), 239-261.

This paper explores commodity exchange as a morally inflected practice, one that mediates competing tensions of greed and generosity, the sacred and profane, and affection and estrangement through the fairtrade flower. Using the UK-Kenya fairtrade flower commodity chain to examine the cultural economy of fairtrade, I suggest that like the charity business and the international development industry, fairtrade complicates the distinction between the sacred and secular and the gift and commodity as Northern consumers and NGOs weave webs of obligation through the medium of the market. Further, I argue that while fairtrade is predicated on values of partnership and interdependence, it also operates within commodity chains that advance liberal ethics as a mode of 'governmentality' over African producers, translating consumers' sympathy-based humanism into new technologies of regulation and surveillance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dolan, C. S. (2008). In the mists of development: Fairtrade in kenyan tea fields. Globalizations, 5(2), 305-318.

Increasing numbers of consumers see themselves as 'partners' in poverty reduction, purchasing Fairtrade products to offset inequalities in the global economy and to ensure that producers in developing countries enjoy the same basic rights and freedoms as their Western counterparts. Yet the extent to which ethical consumption is restructuring commodity chains in a way that diminishes hierarchies between producers and consumers remains an open question. Drawing on a qualitative research project of ethical sourcing in African agriculture, this paper discusses the extent to which key tenets of the fair trade system—empowerment, transparency, equal exchange, and democratic participation—are realized among Fairtrade tea producers in Kenya. It suggests that while such ideals embrace the aspirations of sustainable development, their achievement remains distant from the experience of many producers, for whom ethical outcomes are shaped by an array of conflicting interests, both within and beyond the commodity chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gallagher, K. P. (2008). Confronting the coffee crisis: Fair trade, sustainable livelihoods and ecosystems in mexico and central america. Global Environmental Politics, 8(3), 159-161.

The article reviews the book "Confronting the Coffee Crisis: Fair Trade, Sustainable Livelihoods and Ecosystems in Mexico and Central America" by Christopher M. Bacon, Ernesto Menendez, Stephen R. Gliessman, David Goodman and Jonathan A. Fox.

Getz, C., & Shreck, A. (2006). What organic and fair trade labels do not tell us: Towards a place-based understanding of certification. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 30(5), 490.

Certified organic and Fair Trade food products are making their way into the mainstream among Western consumers and, as such, are increasingly viewed as sustainable and preferable alternatives to the conventional food system, with its many negative social and environmental externalities. Two case studies (Mexico and Dominican Republic) discussed in this paper indicate, however, that operationalizing the goals for organic and Fair Trade food via certification can be a complex and difficult process. [...] These findings suggest that if the appeal of certified labels rests on the integrity of what the label represents to consumers, then such consumer movements would benefit from a more robust analysis of how certification intersects with and affects local spaces, cultures and communities at the point of production. (Getz, Shreck, 2006)

Gielissen, R., & Graafland, J. (2009). Concepts of price fairness: Empirical research into the dutch coffee market. Business Ethics, 18(2), 165.

This paper researches perceptions of the concept of price fairness in the Dutch coffee market. We distinguish four alternative standards of fair prices based on egalitarian, basic rights, capitalistic and libertarian approaches. We investigate which standards are guiding the perceptions of price fairness of citizens and coffee trade organizations. We find that there is a divergence in views between citizens and key players in the coffee market. Whereas citizens support the concept of fairness derived from the basic rights approach, holding that the price should provide coffee farmers with a minimum level of subsistence, representatives of Dutch coffee traders hold the capitalistic view that the free world market price is fair.

Hudson, M., & Hudson, I. (2004). Justice, sustainability, and the fair trade movement: A case study of coffee production in chiapas. Social Justice, 31(3), 130-146.

This article provides a brief backgrounder on Chiapas, Mexico, in the context of globalization and the international coffee trade. It looks at the redistributive aspect of the fair trade system: how fair trade attempts to circumvent the unequal trading relationships of the world market by offering "fair" prices to certain kinds of producer groups. This is the most publicized and transparent aspect of fair trade. The next section examines the productive relations that are supported by the fair trade system. Fair trade is explicitly committed to the support of producers growing coffee in certain ways, involving certain relations of production, and within the framework of a larger development scheme.

Hutchens, A. (2008). Fair trade magic. New Internationalist, (417), 27-27.

The article reports on a fair trade project established to employ the rural poor on the Pacific Ocean island of Vanuatu. Under the auspices of Sandrine Wallez, an economic development official, and Blake Stogner, a Peace Corps volunteer, a weaving business has been established among rural women. The problems associated with the project are discussed.

Jeff, D. (2007), Brewing justice: Fair Trade Coffee, Sustainability, and Survival, California: University California press, 231p.

Fair trade is a fast-growing alternative market intended to bring better prices and greater social justice to small farmers around the world. But is it working? This vivid study of coffee farmers in Mexico offers the first thorough investigation of the social, economic, and environmental benefits of fair trade. Based on extensive research in Zapotec indigenous communities in the state of Oaxaca, Brewing Justice follows the members of the cooperative Michiza, whose organic coffee is sold on the international fair trade market. It compares these families to conventional farming families in the same region, who depend on local middlemen and are vulnerable to the fluctuations of the world coffee market. Written in a clear and accessible style, the book carries readers into the lives of these coffee producer households and their communities, offering a nuanced analysis of both the effects of fair trade on everyday life and the limits of its impact. Brewing Justice paints a clear picture of the complex dynamics of the fair trade market and its relationship to the global economy. Drawing on interviews with dozens of fair trade leaders, the book also explores the changing politics of this international movement, including the challenges posed by the entry of transnational corporations into the fair trade system. It concludes by offering recommendations for strengthening and protecting the integrity of fair trade. (sypnosis)

Lim, T. (2007). A fair share of fair trade. Utne Reader, (139), 16-16.

The article presents a reprint of the article "A Fair Share of Fair Trade," Thea Lim, which appeared in the Summer 2006 issue of "Shameless." A group of women in the northern Peruvian Andes have been selling coffee through a women-only collective called Café Femenino since 2004. The women have been using their profits in ways different from how men might spend them, such as sending their kids to schools and improving the condition of their homes.

Lyon, S. (2008). Fair trade coffee: The prospects and pitfalls of market-driven social justice. Canadian Journal of Latin American & Caribbean Studies, 33(65), 211.

In the book's remaining chapters, [Fridell] explores this growing disparity between the transformative goals that fair traders aspire to accomplish (especially those in the latter two groups) and the goals the network appears to be actually capable of fulfilling. Fridell uses the fair trade coffee sector as a case study to examine the development potential of fair trade labelling. Chapter 3 provides a short history of the conventional coffee industry, focusing on the tendency toward monopoly and the extended cycles of boom and bust characterizing the industry. The chapter also undertakes an exploration of the structural roots of exploitation and inequality within the industry, such as unequal land distribution and power inequalities. Chapter 4 explores strategies designed to promote development in the coffee industry in the 20th century, including the International Coffee Agreement, instant coffee and forward integration, the Colombian and Costa Rican models of coffee production, and producer protection. In his comparison of these antecedent models with fair trade, Fridell fills an existing lacuna in the scholarly literature, which to date has tended to represent fair trade as a revolutionary solution to the structural flaws in the coffee industry. Fridell forcefully argues that fair trade's existing non-governmental organizational model falls short of the most successful model, the state-led development strategy in Costa Rica. (Lyon, 2008)

Marley, K. (2004). Fair trade coffee: Grounds with a cause. Maclean's, 117(20), 51-51.

This article focuses on fair-trade coffee and the coffee business in Canada, comparing several brands by taste and cost. The only thing that makes some mornings bearable is the heavenly smell of fresh coffee. To use the fair-trade label, a coffee company has to abide by standards set out by Fair Trade Labeling Organizations International (the Canadian arm is TransFair Canada). We tested four certified fair-trade brews--two from coffee chains, one brand sold in grocery stores and another from a small Toronto shop of the type found in funky neighbourhoods across Canada. The taste is generally up there with the best gourmet java, in part because the beans are shade-grown on small farms. But because fair-trade coffee still makes up only one per cent of coffee sales in Canada, it can be hard to find, especially in smaller communities. (Marley, 2004)

Mcmurtry, J. (2009). Ethical value-added: Fair trade and the case of café femenino. Journal of Business Ethics, 86, 27.

This article engages various critiques of Fair Trade, from its participation in commodification to providing a cover for "Fair-washing" corporations, and argues that Fair Trade has the potential to answer the challenges contained within them if and when it initiates an ongoing process of developing the "ethical valued-added" content of the label. This argument is made in a number of ways. First, by distinguishing between economic and human development impacts and ethics, this article argues that these impacts are necessary but not sufficient conditions for ethical trade. Second, it engages the question of the possibility of ethical practice in economics generally; developing the idea that when economics is concerned with securing the material basis of a broad range of life capacities it becomes ethical. Third, Fair Trade practice itself is examined from this standpoint, and is conceived of as both comprising a promising ethical value-added practice as well as posing a problem in its current formulation that the framework of ethical value-added can help understand and resolve. Finally, an examination of these theoretical ideas in practice is undertaken through a case study of Café Femenino, a Fair Trade coffee produced in Peru. In conclusion it is argued that for Fair Trade to build upon its economic and human impacts, and therefore remain a meaningful ethical and economic alternative to corporate capitalism and globalization, it must distinguish itself clearly in ethics from those market relations it wishes, explicitly or implicitly, to challenge. (McMurtry, 2009)

 Minney, S. (2002). Fair trade attraction. Look Japan, 48(559), 39.

Reports the establishment of the Fair Trade movement in Japan. Business operation among Japanese Fair Trade organizations; Support to social justice and environmental movement; Changes in the unfair structures of international trade. (Minney, 2002)

Moberg, M. (2005). Fair trade and eastern caribbean banana farmers: Rhetoric and reality in the anti-globalization movement. Human Organization, 64(1), 4.

With the impending removal of tariff quotas that formerly guaranteed access to the UK market, the Eastern Caribbean banana industry faces the prospect of direct price competition with cheaper Latin American bananas. Some farming communities in the region have embraced Fair Trade as an alternative marketing strategy. Certified Fair Trade farmers receive higher prices than do conventional growers, as well as a social premium for local development. In exchange, they must conform to extensive social and environmental criteria. This article compares the rhetorical claims of the Fair Trade movement with the experiences of Fair Trade farmers on St. Lucia. By examining the price differential between conventional and Fair Trade fruit and appropriateness of certifying criteria, I offer a preliminary assessment of Fair Trade as a form of anti-globalization politics. (Moberg, 2005)

Moseley, W. G. (2008). Fair trade wine: South africa's post-apartheid vineyards and the global economy. Globalizations, 5(2), 291-304.

The history of unfair labour practices in South Africa's wine industry is as old as the sector itself, dating back to the seventeenth century. The situation, however, has begun to slowly change since the fall of Apartheid in 1994. While the South African wine industry is still largely white owned, the country's major wine production zone (the Western Cape) is now dotted with a variety of black-owned and black co-owned vineyards that are Fair Trade certified or marketing their wines as worker produced or black owned. This study explores these various arrangements (Fair Trade, worker produced, and black owned), and their connections to local and international wine markets. In particular, it explores the potential of these arrangements to create real change in labour conditions and the welfare of historically disadvantaged farm workers. In comparison to other agricultural sectors in South Africa, the wine industry is an especially interesting case because of its economic importance, growing export potential, and history of white dominance. Adapted from the source document.

Murray, D. L., & Raynolds, L. T. (2000). Alternative trade in bananas: Obstacles and opportunities for progressive social change in the global economy. Agriculture and Human Values, 17(1), 65.

Fair trade bananas are the latest in an increasing array of commodities that are being promoted by various organizations in an effort to create alternative production and consumption patterns to the environmentally destructive and socially inequitable patterns inherent in traditional production and trade systems. Fair trade is touted as a strategy to achieve more sustainable development through linking environmentally and socially conscious consumers in the North with producers pursuing environmentally sound and socially just production practices in the South. Promotion of fair trade bananas in Europe has achieved impressive initial gains on the consumer end of the commodity chain, capturing 10% or more of the banana trade in several countries. Yet in spite of these gains, the fair trade banana initiative appears to be encountering serious obstacles to its further success. The primary challenge in creating a truly alternative trade in bananas stems from the difficulties of upholding rigorous social and environmental standards in the face of increasing inroads into fair trade markets by transnational corporations producing under less rigorous conditions. The case of bananas illuminates the general question of how to achieve more progressive and sustainable production and consumption systems within a global system that drives production and consumption toward greater integration and homogenization under the control of transnational corporations. (Murray)

Murray, D. L., Raynolds, L. T., & Taylor, P. L. (2006). The future of fair trade coffee: Dilemmas facing latin america's small-scale producers. Development in Practice, 16(2), 179-192.

Fair Trade has become a dynamic & successful dimension of an emerging counter-tendency to the neo-liberal globalisation regime. This study explores some of the dilemmas facing the Fair Trade movement as it seeks to broaden & deepen its impact among the rural poor of Latin America's coffee sector. We argue that the efforts to broaden Fair Trade's economic impact among poor, small-scale producers are creating challenges for deepening the political impact of a movement that is based on social justice & environmental sustainability. The study is based on two years' research & seven case studies of Mexican & Central American small-scale farmer cooperatives producing coffee for the Fair Trade market. Tables, References. Adapted from the source document.

Muzyka, Z. (2008). Tea maker fights poverty. Natural Health, 39(1), 26-26.

The article highlights Zhena Muzyka, founder of Gypsy Tea, in Ojai, California. Muzyka founded Gypsy Tea in 2003 when she was selling teas out of a cart in the area. Muzyka learned about the flavor combinations while studying herbal medicine in Peru. Gypsy Tea is offering dozens of varieties of tea sourced from fair trade farms in more than 15 countries.

Narváez, G. E. (2008). Fair trade coffee: The prospects and pitfalls of market-driven social justice. Business History Review, 82(3), 626-628.

The article reviews the book "Fair Trade Coffee: The Prospects and Pitfalls of Market-Driven Social Justice," by Gavin Fridell.

Pirotte, G., Pleyers, G., & Poncelet, M. (2006). Fair-trade coffee in nicaragua and tanzania: A comparison. Development in Practice, 16(5), 441-451.

Fair-trade activities in the South have tended to be studied in relation to the internal aims of the fair-trade organisations themselves. This article argues that it is also critical to consider the wider fair-trade ‘arena’ or set of interactions. The authors focus on Tanzania and Nicaragua and study the role of four key actors—small-scale producers, co-operatives, development partners, and public authorities. Using comparative data from field studies conducted in 2002–2003, the article identifies key national and international issues affecting local producers. Illustrating how fair trade evolves differently according to context, the article examines how the co-operative movement in Nicaragua has been strengthened by fair-trade production, in contrast to the situation in Tanzania. It concludes by discussing some of the challenges faced by fair trade, including how to reconcile the demands of the market with building solidarity. (official summary)

Ransom, D. (1995). What's brewing. New Internationalist, (271), 28.

Focuses on the fair trade movement in the coffee industry. Differences in the price of coffee; Economic condition of small-scale coffee growers; Establishment of coffee-grower cooperatives in Peru.

Raynolds, L. T., Murray, D., & Heller, A. (2007). Regulating sustainability in the coffee sector: A comparative analysis of third-party environmental and social certification initiatives. Agriculture and Human Values, 24(2), 147.

Certification and labeling initiatives that seek to enhance environmental and social sustainability are growing rapidly. This article analyzes the expansion of these private regulatory efforts in the coffee sector. We compare the five major third-party certifications - the Organic, Fair Trade, Rainforest Alliance, Utz Kapeh, and Shade/Bird Friendly initiatives - outlining and contrasting their governance structures, environmental and social standards, and market positions. We argue that certifications that seek to raise ecological and social expectations are likely to be increasingly challenged by those that seek to simply uphold current standards. The vulnerability of these initiatives to market pressures highlights the need for private regulation to work in tandem with public regulation in enhancing social and environmental sustainability. (official summary but the authors)

Renner, M. E. (1998). Measuring the effects of alternative agricultural methods and fair trade practices on the development of producer groups and their members in northern Thailand. (M.Sc., University of Alberta (Canada)). , 127.

This study examines the economic, social and environmental effects of alternative agriculture, traded through fair trade, on Thai producers. These effects are compared with those of conventional and mixed agriculture. The research areas were the government project at Village Three, Pong Yang, and the non-governmental organisations project at San Pay Yang and San Lueng. The organisations involved are outlined, including labelling and certification issues. Economic comparisons found alternative agriculture was a viable alternative to conventional and mixed agriculture when non-farm income and home consumption were included. However, the larger average size of alternative farms and the external funding of the organisations involved must be considered. Social comparisons indicated that alternative agriculture results in educational and health benefits, compared to conventional agriculture. Environmental comparisons showed that on average alternative agriculture is the most integrated, with the lowest number of artificial agricultural inputs used, and the highest number of their alternatives applied. (Renner)

Rotter, S. (2000). A just harvest: A naturalistic evaluation of a fair trade coffee project in San Lucas Toliman, Guatemala. (M.Sc., University of Guelph (Canada)). , 130.

The manner in which the global agricultural market operates is unjust for the small-scale producers of the South. Intermediary domination of the market dictates that these farmers receive only a pittance of commodity-related profit, while middlemen pocket the lion's share. Fair trade is an initiative which attempts to make participation in the global agricultural market more positive for both small producers and their communities. This study evaluates the extent to which a fair trade approach has benefited coffee producers in San Lucas Toliman, Guatemala. It also assesses the extent to which it has been successful in yielding positive change at the community level. The study concludes that this fair trade project is effective in helping farmers meet their financial needs. (Rotter, 2000)

Shreck, A. (2002). Just bananas? A Fair Trade alternative for small-scale producers in the Dominican Republic. (Ph.D., Colorado State University). , 213.

The Fair Trade movement is one of a growing number of contemporary social movements that have emerged to contest the neoliberal, capitalist, and corporate driven process of globalization. The movement seeks to draw from a rising consumer consciousness in the North to improve agricultural conditions in the South by altering exploitative trade relations that govern global exchange. This dissertation questions the extent to which Fair Trade may be a powerful force for overcoming inequitable trade relations, or whether it presents yet another empty promise of capitalist penetration of producer/consumer relations. The study draws on field work in the Azua Valley of the Dominican Republic and focuses on the level of production to better understand the implications of Fair Trade initiatives. (Sherck, 2002)

Sick, D. (2008). Coffee, farming families, and fair trade in costa rica. new markets, same old problems? Latin American Research Review, 43(3), 193-208.

Fair-trade networks have been working to temper the inequities & uncertainties facing small-scale artisans & farmers & to provide them with more secure & livable incomes. Drawing on earlier research in 1991-1993 & a brief pilot study in 2006, this research note examines farmers' perceptions of the benefits & drawbacks of production for fair trade in three coffee-producing regions in Costa Rica. While the fair-trade movement has made significant headway in bringing social & environmental concerns to the marketplace & in providing farmers with guaranteed minimum prices for their coffee, farmers' reactions to production for fair trade indicate a number of problems that farmers & fair-trade cooperatives are facing in their efforts to reap the potential benefits of fair trade. As currently structured, fair-trade markets alone do not adequately address the needs of small farming families in Latin America. References. Adapted from the source document.

TALBOT, J. M. (2009). Confronting the coffee crisis: Fair trade, sustainable livelihoods, and ecosystems in mexico and central america. Journal of Latin American Studies, 41(1), 211-212.

The article reviews the book "Confronting the Coffee Crisis: Fair Trade, Sustainable Livelihoods, and Ecosystems in Mexico and Central America," edited by Christopher Bacon, V. Ernesto Méndez, Stephen R. Gliessman, David Goodman, and Jonathan Fox.

Tallontire, A. (2000). Partnerships in fair trade: Reflections from a case study of cafe direct. Development in Practice, 10(2), 166.

In the 1990s, fair trade, as practised by alternative trading organisations (ATOs), has evolved from a solidarity to a partnership model. This paper explores the nature of fair trade partnership using a case study of Cafedirect and one of its suppliers, the KNCU in Tanzania. For ATOs, fair trade is articulated in terms of a partnership with both producers and consumers. Partnership in this paper is conceived in terms of a fusion of the market and ethics in the links in the supply chain from the producer and consumer, the core partnership being that between the ATO and the producer organisation. The case study is used to highlight the elements of the partnership that are necessary for a fair trade relationship to 'work', emphasising the importance of participation by the producer partner. (Tallontire, 2000)

Utting-Chamorro, K. (2005). Does fair trade make a difference? the case of small coffee producers in nicaragua. Development in Practice, 15(3), 584-599.

Fair trade represents an innovative approach to make the rules of global trade work for disadvantaged producers in the South and for sustainable development. But who are the real beneficiaries of fair trade? Has fair trade resulted in any discernible improvements in the lives of small coffee producers and their communities? This paper examines the effectiveness of fair trade as a development tool and the extent of its contribution to the alleviation of poverty in coffee-producing regions of Nicaragua. The paper argues that it is crucial to analyse the experiences and problems of small coffee producers and producer organisations involved in the fair trade market to ensure that the objectives and claims of fair trade are achieved in practice. The study concludes that there are limits to the extent to which fair trade can significantly raise the standard of living of small coffee producers because of factors such as the debt problems faced by cooperatives, lack of government support, and volatile international coffee prices. (Utting-Chamorro, 2005)

Wilson, T. (2006). Macchiato myths: The dubious benefits of fair trade coffee. Institute of Public Affairs Review, 58(2), 24-27.

The article provides some insights into the benefits and implications of fair trade for the coffee industry in Australia. The Fair Trade campaign has created a bureaucracy funded by developing country farmers, based on a top-down business model that undermines productivity, quality and opportunity for poor farmers. The movement beyond managed trade has led to improvements in coffee production which have resulted in a general reduction in the price of production. (Wilson, 2006)

Zelmer, M. (2006). Cooperative Solutions: How the Fair Trade and organic coffee markets support forested ecosystems on Nicaraguan coffee farms. (M.A., University of British Columbia).

This thesis examines the means and processes through which the production of coffee for the organic and Fair Trade markets affects forested ecosystems on small-scale farms in Pancasan and El Coyolar, Nicaragua. In particular, it emphasizes the role of cooperatives as the institution through which standards are met, information is exchanged, decisions are made, access to global markets is facilitated, and a 'new' product with more resilient social and environmental benefits is achieved. While these markets do indeed require farmers to meet certification standards, it is the cooperatives and their allies that develop the capacity necessary for farmers to do so. Moreover, cooperative membership enables farmers to access resources that are embedded within networks they would not otherwise be able to access, and which are significant to both their livelihoods and the forested ecosystems they manage.

Complete document can be found here.